​Spatial Analysis is closely associated

Correct option is B

Spatial Analysis is a quantitative approach used in geography to examine spatial patterns, relationships, and distributions. It is based on Positivism, which emphasizes empirical observation, mathematical models, and statistical techniques to study geographical phenomena.

• Developed during the Quantitative Revolution (1950s-1960s).
• Focuses on measuring spatial distributions, networks, and flows.
• Uses tools like GIS, regression analysis, and spatial statistics.

Thus, the correct answer is:
 Positivism

Positivism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes scientific observation, empirical evidence, and mathematical analysis to study geography. It was influenced by the ideas of Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who argued that knowledge should be based on observable facts and logical reasoning rather than speculation.

Emphasis on Quantification:

• Uses statistics, mathematical models, and probability to analyze spatial patterns.
  

Scientific Objectivity:

• Focuses on facts and data-driven conclusions rather than subjective interpretations.
  

Cause-and-Effect Relationships:

• Tries to identify universal laws governing spatial interactions.
  

Hypothesis Testing & Prediction:

• Uses the scientific method to formulate theories and test them.
  

1. Behaviouralism → Focuses on human perception and decision-making, not mathematical models.

 3. Areal Differentiation → Describes regional geography (Richard Hartshorne) rather than spatial relationships.

 4. Structuralism → Deals with hidden structures in society (e.g., Marxist geography), not spatial models.