Correct option is B

The amygdala is the primary brain structure involved in processing fear and anxiety, making it central to panic attacks. It plays a crucial role in the fight-or-flight response, which is activated when the brain perceives a potential threat. In individuals with panic disorder, the amygdala is often hyperactive, misinterpreting harmless situations as dangerous and triggering a full-blown panic attack.

Studies using functional MRI (fMRI) have shown that individuals with panic disorder have heightened amygdala activity, making them more prone to sudden, intense fear responses. Treatment approaches like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and anti-anxiety medications aim to regulate amygdala activity to reduce panic symptoms.

Additional Information :
(a) Thalamus: The thalamus relays sensory information to the brain but does not directly cause panic attacks. It helps process incoming stimuli
(c) Pons: The pons is involved in sleep, respiration, and arousal, but it may influence breathing irregularities during panic episodes.
(d) Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus regulates stress hormones and the autonomic nervous system, but it is activated by the amygdala rather than initiating panic attacks itself.

Correct option is A

Nocturnal panic attacks are unexpected panic attacks that occur during sleep, often waking individuals with sudden fear and physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, and sweating. These attacks are not triggered by external stressors and can happen in deep non-REM (NREM) sleep, making them unexpected and difficult to predict.

Information Booster:
-Similar to Daytime Panic Attacks: They involve symptoms like rapid heartbeat, breathlessness, sweating, dizziness, and a sense of doom.
-Not Triggered by External Stimuli: Unlike situational panic attacks, nocturnal panic occurs spontaneously, without an obvious trigger.
-Leads to Sleep Disturbances: Individuals with nocturnal panic often fear going to sleep, leading to insomnia and daytime fatigue.
-Related to Panic Disorder: Studies show that around 40-60% of people with panic disorder experience nocturnal panic attacks.
-Autonomic Nervous System Dysfunction: The dysregulation of the body's stress response can trigger nocturnal panic attacks.
-Treatment Options: Therapy (e.g., Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia, relaxation techniques) and medication (e.g., SSRIs, benzodiazepines) are often used to manage symptoms.

Additional Information (Incorrect Options):
(b) Situationally Predisposed Panic: This type of panic attack occurs in specific situations where an individual has previously experienced panic, such as in crowds, enclosed spaces, or while driving. It is different from nocturnal panic, which happens unexpectedly.

Correct option is D

Panic disorder is characterized by sudden and intense episodes of fear, often accompanied by cognitive and physical symptoms. Cognitive symptoms primarily involve irrational thoughts, misinterpretation of bodily sensations, and a heightened fear response.

The most common cognitive symptoms of panic disorder include:
-Depersonalization/Derealization: Feeling detached from oneself or the surrounding environment.
-Fear of dying: A strong belief that a panic attack may lead to death, often due to symptoms like chest pain or breathlessness.
-Fear of going crazy: A sensation of losing control or becoming mentally unstable during an attack.

However, Dissociative Amnesia (Option d) is not considered a cognitive symptom of panic disorder. Dissociative amnesia refers to a condition where an individual forgets personal information, traumatic events, or significant life experiences due to psychological stress. It is more commonly associated with Dissociative Disorders rather than panic disorder.

Correct option is C

Research consistently shows that women are significantly more likely to experience panic attacks and panic disorder than men. Studies indicate that women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with panic disorder. This higher prevalence is attributed to biological, psychological, and social factors.

Information Booster:
-Age of Onset: Panic disorder typically begins in late adolescence to early adulthood, with higher rates in women.
-Hormonal Factors: Changes in estrogen and progesterone levels are linked to increased anxiety sensitivity.
-Comorbidity: Women with panic disorder are more likely to have comorbid conditions, such as depression, agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).
-Menstrual Cycle & Panic Attacks: Women often report more frequent panic attacks during their premenstrual phase due to hormonal fluctuations.
-Treatment Response: Women tend to respond well to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), but they may experience more side effects from medications.
-Impact of Menopause: Panic attacks can increase during perimenopause, as hormonal changes affect stress response systems.

Correct option is C

Individuals with panic disorder are at a high risk of developing serious depression and avoidant personality disorder (APD). Studies suggest that 30-50% of people with panic disorder experience major depressive episodes at some point in their lives. This is due to the emotional distress, social withdrawal, and chronic anxiety associated with panic disorder.

Information Booster:
-Panic Disorder and Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD): People with panic disorder frequently avoid social situations, leading to APD.
-Fear-Avoidance Cycle: Persistent fear of panic attacks leads to avoidance, reinforcing anxiety and depression.
-Impact on Daily Life: Comorbid depression worsens functioning, motivation, and quality of life.
-Neurotransmitter Involvement: Serotonin and norepinephrine imbalances contribute to both panic disorder and depression.
-Higher Suicide Risk: Individuals with both panic disorder and depression have a greater risk of suicidal thoughts.
-Integrated Treatment Approach: Therapy must address both anxiety and mood symptoms to be effective.

Additional Information:

Dissociative Disorder:
Dissociative disorders involve a disconnection or lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions, and identity. People with these disorders may escape reality in ways that are involuntary and unhealthy. Examples include:
-Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
-Dissociative Amnesia
-Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Somatization:
Somatization refers to the manifestation of psychological distress through physical symptoms. It is often associated with Somatic Symptom Disorder, where individuals experience significant physical symptoms that cause distress or disrupt daily life, often without a clear medical cause.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):
OCD is characterized by persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) that the person feels driven to perform. These behaviors are often performed to reduce anxiety or prevent a feared event, even though they are not logically connected to the outcome.