Which of the following are the motivators for helping others?
(a) Attitudes
(b) Empathy
(c) Personal distress
(d) Norms and values

Correct option is C

The primary motivators for helping others (prosocial behavior) include Attitudes (general predispositions toward helping shaped by socialization), Empathy (understanding and sharing others' emotional states, central to Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis), and Norms and values (social/personal standards like social responsibility norm and reciprocity norm). Personal distress, while related to helping situations, is actually an egoistic motivation—people help to reduce their own discomfort rather than out of genuine concern for others (Cialdini's negative-state relief model). Research distinguishes between empathic concern (other-oriented, altruistic) and personal distress (self-oriented, egoistic), with the latter not representing true prosocial motivation but rather self-serving reduction of aversive arousal.

Information Booster:
● Batson's Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: Empathic concern (compassion, sympathy) produces altruistic motivation to reduce another's suffering, distinct from egoistic motivations
● Attitudes Toward Helping: Shaped by socialization, cultural values, and past experiences; influence helping through attitude-behavior consistency
● Social Norms: Social responsibility norm (help those in need), reciprocity norm (help those who helped you), equity norm (fair exchange)
● Personal vs. Cultural Values: Collectivist cultures emphasize in-group helping; individualist cultures may emphasize universal helping or individual choice
● Personal Distress Distinction: High personal distress leads to helping only when escape is difficult; when escape is easy, distressed individuals avoid helping to reduce their discomfort